Dualism And Dualistic Interactionism

Dualism And Dualistic Interactionism Dualism was believed to approach by Pythagoras nearly 6th Century B.C.E. Pythagoras believe on transmigration of soul-means that when a person died, the soul is immortal and bound to divide soul. However , Pythagorass theory is not likely famous during that time. Later, Plato shows the disjunctive between mind and body. Plato think that body is like a prison used to trap mind/soul. After death, the body decompose because it was made of material while soul/mind is immortal. This shows that body and mind is two separated things. Dualism that famously used nowadays came from the famous philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes.It is also known as the beginning of modern philosophy. Rene introduced two main subject for dualism which are substance and property. In order to understand dualism,several argument were rised.One particular argument is dualistic interactionism which known ascommon sense.Descartes stated the point of interaction is something connected mind/soul to body is at pineal gland of brain.However,the soul is not likely trap at pineal glad,it only act as point of interaction.Mind is real but it is different from brain.. The brain is the major locus for the mind or consciousness of the soul, yet mind or consciousness is distributed throughout the whole body.But the function of pineal gland as point of interaction has been proved as wrong by scientifically method.Pineal gland function to secrete serotonin derivative melatonin(hormone use to modulate sleep and wake patterns and seasonal function).There are no evidence to associate mind/soul to body.This is making interactionism as a weak argument to defend dualism. Another argument is mind is the immortal soul.Many religion like Islam and Christian teach that soul is different from our body.When we died ,the soul is immortal and will go to heaven or hell.This argument is similar to Platos approach.Thats why platonic dualism are well accepted in Christian . The third argument is ,if dualism is false,we can reduce mind/mental states to physical matter or vice versa,or to neutral third substance.However,it was impossible to change your mental states to matter.For example if we feel anger towards someone,can you made your feeling into concrete object?of course not.Thats why this argument is commonly used to convince people about dualism.However,this argument can be critise for the lackness of imagination.In imagination we think about something then we made it into some physical things. The last argument is mental states(mind) and physical(body)have different and irreconcilable properties. First point for this judgement is mental states cannot be publically observable.For example ,I fall from stairs and hurt my head.We can see the effect of fallness because the bump in my head but you cannot feel the pain I suffered.Thats why mental states is private unlike physical things such as fireworks and cannot be publically observable. Next is mental states is not spatially located .Many experiment been conducted but scientist still cannot proved where mind located ,either inside or outside of the brain.Pretending that you are feeling happy.Does you feel happy in your head or the happiness is spread throughout your body?So,where exactly your mind?Third point is mental states does not have properties as physical.As example our body have mass and can do physical motion.We can not weigh a thought and we cannot measure how far our feeling can go.Some people stated that they have depthness of feeling but,how can they measure the depthness?Fourth,mental states have subjective properties(Qualia)that physical do not have.Qualia is raw feels .It is a subjective or qualitative properties of our experience.It is like how to know what is red color or how to differentiate musical notes heard from piano or violin. It is impossible to reduced Qualia into physical properties. So there are at least four major differences between the mental and the physical, which make it difficult, to say the least, to understand how one might reduce the mental to the physical. That seems to give us considerable reason to think that the mind and the body are two totally different categories of being. So,this is a good argument for dualism. In this philosophy of mind, dualism is different kinds of mental events and physical events in a set of beginning of belief in which they were claimed. Instead of that, the dualist in the philosophy of mind had identified the big difference between mind and matter. They all disagree that the mind is the same as the brain. While others also deny that the mind is the only one the product of the brain. The concept of this dualism is that our mind is more than our brain. It can contain everything in our surrounding. This concept tells us that our mind has a non-material which is spiritual dimension that includes consciousness and possibly an eternal attribute or we can call that as motivation. In order to understand this concept is we have to consider ourselves first as a container which is including our physical body and physical brain together with a separate non-physical mind, spirit, soul, motivation and so on. The mind, spirit, or soul is considered the conscious part that manifests itself through the brain. In a similar way where the picture and sound waves manifest themselves through a television set. These waves of picture and sound are also known as no -material just like the mind, spirit, or soul. There are many types of dualism that are distinguished based on if and how mind and matter are thought to each other together with its own functionality. Thus, this dualism can be divided into two which is substance and property dualist. Substance dualists typically argue that there are difference matters in our mind and body where the mind is a thinking thing is less exposed to the physical of an object. The physical objects are including size, shape, location, volume, speed and direction in movement, adherence to the laws of physics, and so on. However, substance dualists fall into several groups depending on how they think the connection of mind and body are related. For instances, interactionists believe that minds and bodies can affect to each other. Occasionalists and parallelists, generally motivated by a concern to their curiosity of physical science. But this is denied because all apparent interaction to God is ultimately attributing.Epiphenomenalists offer a compromise theory, asserting that bodily events can have mental events as effects at the same time denying that the reverse is true. This can be done by avoiding any threat to the scientific law of conservation of energy at the expense of the common sen se notion that we act for reasons. The occasionalism and parallelism are another two types of substance dualist. These theories are largely preserved or are taken from the original of history. The occasionalist mentioned that there are no interactin between mind and body mind. They may seem to when, for example, we put our hand above the hot kettle then the hot and distressing sensation occurs. Occassionalists, like Malebranche, assert that the sensation is caused by God where God create appropriate experiences and feeling by using the occasion of environmental happenings. Furthermore, according to the parallelist, our mental and physical histories are coordinated so that mental events appear to cause physical events (and vice versa) by virtue of their temporal conjunction, but mind and body no more interact than two clocks that are synchronized so that the one chimes when hands of the other point out the new hour. Since this fantastic series of harmonies could not possibly be due to mere coincidence, so it is advanced in explanation of religion. In creation God does not appeared continuously, just like the occasionalist had mentioned, but builds into creation a pre-established harmony which is we programmed ourselves that maximally removes the need for future impact. Next, another dualism is property dualism which is that mental states are irreducible attributes of brain states and it holds that mental phenomena are non-physical properties of physical substances. Consciousness is the most widely known as an example of a non-physical property of physical substances. However, other dualists hold that mental states, characteristic and episodes are brain states, even the states cannot be conceptualized in exactly the same way without loss of meaning. According to epiphenomenalism, mental events can build bodily events or processes, but bodily events or processes cannot caused by mental phenomena (McLaughlin, p. 277) whether an epiphenomenalist thinks these mental epiphenomena are properties of the body or properties of a non-physical mental storage determines whether the epiphenomenalist is a property or substance dualist. They are many psychology principle that had been discuss today. For example, functionalism, dualism, mongolism. All this principle had their own explanations and their own believe about the life and the things that related to life. But, for my group opinion, the most suitable and the nearest principle that can get along with life. human body actually had two things, that is body and mind. This two things react with each other simultaneously to create the most complicated and perfect things, that is life to run smoothly. Dualism can be prove to be nearly correct because it has implications that related to life after death issues. This is because, after we die, we will going to had our life after death, and many religion in this world was practicing the same things. After we die, our soul will separated from our body, and will live the life after the death. So, the life after death is based on judgment on how we operate or run our life before. Besides that, nobody in this world can ret ain or can resist death. Everybody will die, and nobody had the immortal. So, this prove that dualism concept was the most or nearly precise principle that can be related to life. Apart from that, human rationality in the terms of thinking was also an implication that can be used to prove that dualism principle was true. Physical forces was something that play an importance role in peoples thought judgment. If there is no soul, instead, there is only had body, they will be no believe or not believe for something that is not real-abstract. For example, the galaxy had seven layer, and god is actually exist . on the other hand, if our body had only self-refuting left, there will be no room for rational beliefs. British study had published that there is evidence that consciousness continues after a persons brain stopped. The most shocking prove was that actually death support the dualism . the brain still run the function of lucid thought with formation and reasoning of memory. Besides, there are also patience that admit that they had gain information that they had never knew it before. Brain was also being proved that had no place where electric stimulation can cause a person to believe or decide. This was proved by doing interviewed to sixty three heart attack victims who were declared death. Roger sperry and hiks team had studied difference between right and left hemisphrere of the brain, and they had founf that mind had causal power independent of the brain activities. This is why, materialism was concluded to be false by sperry. Actually, thought had two component, that is mind and brain. This can be said to be true because thoughts can be true or false, however, brain staes itself cannot be true or false. So, how on earth can we think in our everyday life about right or wrong? This can be the obvious prove to prove that dualism was the most precise principle exist-yet. Besides that, by measuring brain waves, nobody can tell we what are we thinking. Instead, we must been ask about what had been thinking first, then everybody will knows. That is why the dualism principle was chosen to be most or nearest precise principle that can be adapt to our life as it had two component that work and react simultaneously to complete the cycle that we called life and it was also true to be said that life or mind body actually had two component, that is body and soul.

Powermat, Inc. Cases (Recruitment) Essay

Powermat, Inc. has encountered difficulty over the last few years in filling its middle-management positions. The company, which manufactures and sells complex machinery, is organised into six semi-autonomous manufacturing departments. Top management believes that it is necessary for these departmental managers to know the product lines and the manufacturing process, because many managerial decisions must be made at that level. Therefore, the company originally recruited employees from within. However, they soon found that employees elevated to the middle-management level often lack the skills necessary to discharge their new duties. A decision then was made to recruit from outside, particularly from educational institutes with good industrial management programmes. Through the services of a professional recruiter, the company was provided with a pool of well qualified management graduates. Some of them were hired and placed in lower management positions as preparation for advancemen t to the middle-management jobs. They all left the company, however, within two years of their recruitment. Management reverted to its former policy of promoting employees from within and experienced basically the same results as before. Faced with the imminent retirement of employees in several key middle management positions, the company decided d to call in a consultant who could suggest solutions. Discussion Questions 1. What is the problem of recruiting in this company? 2. If you were the consultant, what would you recommend? HRM Planning and Staffing 2.1 Introduction Human resource planning and staffing is one of the toughest task, an organization has before it. Selecting the right man for the right job at the right time is main task of the HR department. The main task is to ensure that the staff of the organization does not leave the organization and  ensure that they are satisfied and that the work of the organization is not affected by the absence of the employee and so on. 2.2 Objectives After reading this chapter, the student will understand the process and problems of HR Planning, job analysis, its process, job description, etc. 2.2 Process and Problems of Human Resource Planning. HRP Process Company Objectives & Strategic Plans P Market Forecast Production Objectives/Process Capital/Financial Plans Plans H A S E Time Horizon (Short/Long Term) 1 Human Resources Demand Forecast N Number O R Category M S Skills Action Plans Recruitment Retraining Redundancy Productivity Retention Monitoring and Control Factors affecting HRP Type and strategy of organization Organizational growth cycles and planning Environmental uncertainties Time horizons Type and quality of forecasting information Nature of jobs being filled and Off-loading the work Type and strategy of organization The type of organization is an important consideration because it determines the production processes involved, number and type of staff needed, and the supervisory and managerial personnel required. Manufacturing organizations are more complex in this respect than those that render services. The strategic plan of the organization defines the organization’s HR needs. E.g. A Strategy of internal growth means that additional employees must be hired. Acquisitions or mergers, on the other hand, probably mean that the organization will need to plan for layoffs, since mergers tend to create, duplicate or overlapping positions that can be handled more efficiently with fewer employees. Primarily, the organization decides either to be proactive or reactive in HRP. It can either decide to carefully anticipate the needs and systematically plan them to fill them in advance, or it can simply react to needs as they arise. The above diagram summaries the 5 choices faced by the organizations in strategic HRP. An organization will often tend to be to the left or right on some and to the right on the other, although there could be exceptions. A company could be at one end of the extreme on some plan characteristics and at the other end on other. B. Organization Growth Cycle and Planning The stage of an organization’s growth can have considerable influence on HRP. Small organizations in the embryonic stage may not have personnel planning. Need for planning is felt when the organization enters the growth stage. HR forecasting becomes essential. Internal development of people also begins to receive attention in order to keep up with the growth. A mature organization experiences less flexibility and variability. Growth slows down. The workforce becomes old as few younger people are hired. Planning becomes more formalized and less flexible and innovative. Issues like retirement and possible retrenchment dominate planning. Finally, in the declining stage, HRP takes a different focus. Planning is done for layoff, retrenchment and retirement. Since decisions are often made after serious financial and sales shocks are experienced by the organization, planning is often reactive in nature. C. Environmental Uncertainties HR managers rarely have the privilege of operating in a stable and predictable environment. Political, social and economic changes affect all organizations. Personnel planners deal with environmental uncertainties by carefully formulating recruitment, selection and training and development policies and programmes. Balancing mechanisms are built into the HRM programme through succession planning, promotion channels, layoffs, flexitime, job sharing, retirement, VRS and other personnel related arrangements. D. Time Horizons Since there are long and short term plans spanning from six months to twenty years, the exact time span depends on the degree of uncertainty prevailing in an organization’s environment. Plans for companies operating in an unstable environment, computers for example, must be for a short period. Plans for others where environment is fairly stable, for example a university plan, maybe long-term. In general, the greater the uncertainty, the shorter the plan’s time horizon and vice-versa. E. Type and Quality of Information The information used to forecast personnel needs originates form a multitude of sources. A major issue in personnel planning is the type of information which should be used in making forecasts. Closely related to the type of information is the quality of data used. The quality and accuracy of information depend upon the clarity with which the organizational decision makers have defined their strategy, organizational structure, budgets, production schedules and so on. In addition, the HR department must maintain well-developed job-analysis information and HR information systems that provide accurate and timely data. Generally speaking, organizations operating in stable environments are in a better position to obtain comprehensive, timely and accurate information because of longer planning horizons, clearer definitions of strategy and objectives, and fewer disruptions. F. Nature of Jobs being filled Personnel planners must consider the nature of jobs being filled in the organization. Job vacancies arise because of separations, promotions and expansion strategies. It is easy to employ shop-floor workers, but a lot of sourcing is necessary for hiring managerial personnel. It is, therefore, necessary for the personnel department to anticipate vacancies, as far in advance as possible, to provide sufficient lead time to ensure that suitable candidates are recruited. G. Outsourcing Several organizations outsource part of their work to outside parties either in the form of sub-contracting or ancillarisation. Outsourcing is a regular feature both in private and public sectors. Most organizations have surplus labour and they do not want to worsen the problem by hiring more people. Hence, the need for off-loading. Competence Analysis. Every person in the organization need not have all the competence to do the desired work. The HR department identifies the competence of the individual employee and maps the same with the jobs in the organization. If an employee is capable of doing a particular job, to increase his efficiency, the HR department gives training to improve his competence in doing that job more skillfully and even more effectively and efficiently. Job Analysis and Design Job Analysis is the process by which data, with regard to each job, is systematically observed and noted. It provides information about the nature of the job and the characteristics or qualifications that are desirable in the job holder. Job analysis provides precisely what the duties, responsibilities, working environment and other requirements of a job are and to present these in a clear, concise and systematic way Job Analysis study attempts to provide information in seven basic areas: Job Identification or its title, including the code number, if any. Distinctive or significant characteristics of the job, its location setting, supervision, union jurisdiction and hazards and discomforts, if any. What the typical worker does: specific operations and tasks that make up the assignment and their relative timing and importance; the simplicity, the routine or complexity of tasks, responsibility for others, for property, or for funds. What materials and equipment the worker uses: Metals, plastics, grain, yarns; and lathes, milling machines, electronic ignition testers, corn huskers, punch presses and micrometers are illustrative. How the job is performed: the emphasis here is on the nature of operations and may specify such operations as handling, feeding, removing, drilling, driving, setting up and many others. Required personnel attributes: Experience, training apprenticeship, physical strength, coordination or dexterity, physical demands, mental capabilities, aptitudes , and social skills are some attributes. The conditions under which the work is performed: Working conditions and work environments is a major contributing factor in the  performance of the job, and the satisfaction of the employee. Job Analysis: Process To be meaningful and useful for personnel related decision-making, job analysis must be carried more at frequent intervals. Jobs in the past were considered to be static and were designed on the basis that they would not change. People working on these jobs were different, the jobs remained unchanged. For higher efficiency and productivity, jobs must change according to the employees who carry them out. Some of the major reasons leading such changes are: Technological Change: The pace of change in technology necessitates changes in the nature of job as well as the skills required. E.g. Word processing has drastically changed the nature of secretarial jobs. Union-Management Agreements: The agreements entered between management and the union can bring about change in the nature of job, duties and responsibilities. For example, under employees participation scheme, the workers are encouraged to accept wider responsibilities. People: Each employee brings with him his own strengths and we aknesses, his own style of handling a job and his own aptitude. Steps in Job Analysis Process Organization Analysis: The first step is to get an overall view of various jobs in the organization with a view to examine the linkages between jobs and the organizational objectives, interrelationships among the jobs and the contribution of various jobs towards achieving organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The organization chart and the work flow or process charts constitute an important source of information for the purpose. Use of Job Analysis Information: Depending on organizational priorities and constraints, it is desirable to develop clarity regarding the possible uses of the information pertaining to job analysis. It is important to focus on a few priority activities in which the job analysis information could be used. Selection of Jobs for Analysis: Carrying out job analysis is a time-consuming and costly process. It is therefore, desirable to select a representative sample of jobs for purposes of analysis Collection of Data: Data will be collected on the characteristics of the job, the required behaviour and personal attributes needed to do the job effectively. Several techniques for job analysis are available. Care needs to be taken to use only such techniques, which are acceptable and reliable in the existing situation within the organization. Preparation of Job Description: The information collected in the previous step is used in preparing the job description for the job highlighting major tasks, duties and responsibilities for effective job performance Preparation of Job Specification: Likewise, the information gathered in the â€Å"Collection of Data† is also used to prepare the job specification for a job highlighting the personal attributes in terms of education, training, aptitude and experience to fulfill the job description. Job Analysis thus carried out provides basic inputs to the design of jobs so that it is able to meet the requirements of both the organization (in terms of efficien cy and productivity) as well as the employees (in terms of job satisfaction and fulfillment). Developing appropriate job design is then the outcome of the job analysis process. JOB DESCRIPTION Data collected for job analysis provides the basis for preparing job description. It refers to the job contents and the expectations that an organization has from its employees. Job descriptions usually outline the minimum requirements of jobs for many reasons: First, despite all the attempts, a perfect and fully inclusive job description is not possible. In fact, as one moves up in the hierarchy of an organization, a detailed job description becomes very difficult. Secondly, most organizations would prefer not to describe the job fully, if it is possible, because employees would then stick to what has been described and would not do anything beyond it. Thirdly, if a job were fully described, supervision would automatically be taken care of by the duties performed, making some of the duties of the supervisory staff redundant. Fourthly, technology is ~hanging fast and hence the nature of job is also chang ¬ing. Unless an organization continuously updates the job description, it woul d be difficult to monitor the performance of the employees. DESIGN OF JOB DESCRIPTION A primary output or result of job analysis is job description. Information obtained by job analysis is shifted and recorded concisely, clearly and fully in the job description. The job description must assemble all the important elements of a job, such as essential tasks, responsibilities, qualifications required and the functional relation of the job to other jobs. There is no universally accepted standard format for job descriptions for the reason that the form and structure of the job descriptions must depend on the kind of work being analyzed and the job evaluation plan being used. For example, if the job evaluation form comprises factors such as physical and intellectual effort, knowledge, skills, and responsibilities and working conditions, it follows that job description should be structured to reflect these factors so as to facilitate factor by factor comparison and evaluation of the jobs. With non- analytical methods, job description may be more flexible and simpler but most specify the title of the job and its position in the organization, summarizes the tasks performed and list the skills and abilities required. It is helpful to follow the following guidelines when writing a job description: I. Always be accurate about what is expressed. Omit expressions which are attributes- such as uninteresting, distasteful, etc. Personal pronouns should be avoided- if it is necessary to refer to the worker, the word† operator† may be used. Do not describe only one phase of the job and give the impression that all phases are covered. Generalized or ambiguous expressions, such as ‘prepare’, ‘assist’, ‘handle’ etc. should be omitted unless supported by data that will clarify them. All statements should be clearly defined and simply set down- promiscuous use of adjectives only reflects one’s own opinion. Describe the job as is being done, by the majority of workers holding the designation. Write in simple language– explain unusual technical terms. Description of a job, which is part of teamwork, should establish the team relationship. The length of description is immaterial; it is not expected even with printed form!: that all job descriptions should be of equal length but write concisely. When the job analyst finds that the data he has to work with is insufficient, s/he should  stop until sufficient data is available. Put the date of completion of each description and revise it as often as changes in jobs and occupation require. Job description should have the concurrence of the concerned supervisor. Description should contain the initials of the persons who compile them. USES OF JOB DESCRIPTION Apart from being a basis for job evaluation, the job descriptions can be put to many uses. They are as under: Supervisor- Employee Communication: The information contained in the job description outlines the work, which the incumbent is expected to perform. Hence, it is an extremely useful document for both the supervisor and the subordinate for purposes of communication. Furthermore, it helps employees to understand just what work their associates are expected to perform, thus, facilitating integration of efforts at the work site by the employees themselves. Recruitment, Selection, Promotion, Transfer: Information pertaining to the knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the work to an acceptable standard, can be used as a sound basis on which to base standards are procedures for recruitment, selection, promotion and transfer. Work Performance Appraisal: To be sound and objective, a performance appraisal system must be rooted in the work performed by the employee; such . work is indicated by the duties in the job description. In such an approach, using each duty as the basis for discussion, the employee and the su pervisor agree on work performance goals for the period to be covered by the subsequent evaluation report; they also agree on the criteria to be used to determine the extent to which the goals have been attained. The reports resulting from this methodology minimize subjectivity by focusing attention on the job, as distinct from the personality traits, habits or practices of the employee. As a conse ¬quence, the results are more factual; valid and defensible than is the case in other types of systems. Manpower Planning, Training and Development: These three processes are closely interrelated. The job description showing, in specific terms, the knowledge, skill and ability requirements for effective performance of the duties, is a sound and rational basis for each of these processes. Analysis  of various types of jobs at progressively more senior levels will indicate logical sources of supply for more senior posts, as part of manpower planning. It will also indicate the gap to be bridged in terms of knowledge, skill and ability, thus providing a sound basis for preparingj0b- related training and development programmes. Industrial Relations: Frequently, issues arise in the industrial relatio ns field, which have their origin in the work to be undertaken. In these instances the job description may be used to form a factual basis for discussion and problem resolution. Organization and Procedure Analysis- The duties and responsibilities outlined in the job description may be used to a great advantage by management in analyzing organisation and procedures, because they reveal how the work is organized, how the procedure operate and how authority and responsibility are appointed. A Job Description should include a: I. Job Title: It represents a summary statement of what the job entails. Job Objective or Overall Purpose Statement: This statement is generally a summary designed to orient the reader to the general nature, level, purpose and objective of the job. The summary should describe the broad function and scope of the position and be no longer than three to four sentences. List of Duties or Tasks Performed: The list contains an item-by-item list of principal duties, continuing responsibilities and accountability of the occupant of the position. The list should contain each and every essential job duty or respon ¬sibility that is critical to the successful performance of the job. The list should begin with the most important functional and relational responsibilities and continue down in order of significance. Each duty or responsibility that comprises at least five percent of the incumbent’s time should be included in the list. Description of the Relationships and Roles: the occupa nt of the position holds’ within the company, including any supervisory positions, subordinating roles and/or other working relationships. JOB SPECIFICATION Workload analysis helps in identifying the minimum qualification needed to perform a particular job. These may include academic qualifications, professional qualifications, age, years of experience, relevance and nature of previous experience, and other skills and attitudes. They form the  minimum eligibility requirements, which the candidate must have, for the appointment to a job. A clear indication of specifications helps in generating eligible applications, because of self-selection. The candidates who do not possess those qualifications do not apply. On the other hand, lack of clear- cut specifications may generate a large number of applications, leading to high costs, in terms of man-hours, in processing them. There is a great deal of disagreement with regard to developing complete and correct job specification unlike the job description, which provides more objective assessment of job requirements. The decision to specify minimum human requirements for ajob is a difficult one as it involves considerable degree of subjectivity. There is a general feeling that organisations generally tend to establish relatively high requirements for formal education and training, resulting in a situation where highly qualified people end up doing jobs of routine nature. Particularly, in India, highly qualified personnel are recruited for jobs where their abilities, skills and knowledge are under- utilized. Despite these problems, however, minimally acceptable human requirements need to be specified for various jobs and category of jobs. The format for job specification should include the following items: †¢ Position Title †¢ Education/ Training †¢ Experience †¢ Knowledge †¢ Abilities †¢ Skills †¢ Aptitude †¢ Desirable Attributes †¢ Contra-indicators, if any any. From job analysis to jobless world Job enrichment means redefining in a way that increases the opportunities for workers to experience building of responsibility, achievement, growth and recognition by doing job well. Analysing together the job Establishing client recognition Vertical loading Job-Sharing Flexible job doing pattern etc. Open feedback channels. Whether specialised, enlarged or enriched, workers skill generally likes to have specific job to do and the job require job descriptions. But in the emerging organisation today jobs are becoming more amorphous and more difficult to define. In other â€Å"words’ the trend is towards â€Å"do-jobbing in many modern organisation. Given this general description of organisation, roles that are clearly defined play a significant part in accomplishing the goals of the organisation. Roles can be seen in a variety of ways. Role and Role Dynamics A role is a set of expectations associated with a job or a position. When roles are unclear or complicated performance problem can occur. Role ambiguity occurs when someone is uncertain about what is expected of him or her. To do any job; the people need know what is expected of them. Role clarity is important for every member of the group, but that is more important for new members. Role ambiguity creates problems and the whole efforts is either wasted or of appreciated. Expecting too much or too little may create problem. Role overload occurs when too much is expected and individual feels overloaded with work/responsibility. Role underload occurs when too little is expected and the individual feels underutilized therefore, a balanced and realistic role load is expected. Role conflict occurs when a person is unable to meet the expectations of others. The individual understands what needs to be done but for some reasons can not comply. The resulting tension can reduce job satisfaction, affects both work performance and the relationship with other groups members. The Common forms of role conflict are: intra sender role-conflicting which occurs when the same person sends conflicting expectations. inter sender role-conflict occurs when different people send conflicting expecta ¬tions. Person-Job-conflict-occurs when one’s personal values & needs come into conflict with role expectations. inter role conflict occurs when the expectations of two or more roles held by the same individual becomes incompatible-such as conflict between work & family demands. One way of  managing role-dynamics in any group or work setting is the role ¬negotiation. This is the process through which individual negotiate to clarify the role expectation each holds for the other. 7.2 ROLE DESCRIPTION Well-written role descriptions define the work of the organisation and its reasons for existence as an employer of human resources. Moreover, they define and help quantify the relative importance of work, what each position contributes to a process and the organisation as a whole. This definition illustrates an important point regarding role descriptions. Used in today’s work environment, they describe not only what the role is all about but also how it contributes to the work of the organisation. They describe the nature of the work to be done by stating the purpose and main responsibilities. They may also include information on the type of person who is best suited to perform the job. Role descriptions are a valuable resource. They have the potential to be useful organisational tools; however, to realize their potential they must be properly monitored. There are two main types of role descriptions, the generic or general and the specific or individual. RECRUITMENT Recruitment is the development and maintenance of adequate manpower sources. It involves the creation of a pool of available human resources from-which the organisation can draw when it needs additional employees. Recruiting is the process of attracting applicants with certain skills, abilities; and other personal characteristics to job vacancies in an organisation. According to Denerley and Plumblay (1969), recruitment is concerned with both engaging the required number of people, and measuring their quality. It is not only a matter of satisfying a company’s needs, it†¢is also an activity which influences the shape of the company’s future. The need for recruitment may arise out of: (i) vacancies due to promotion, transfer, termination, retirement, permanent disability, or death; (ii) creation. of vacancies due to business expansion, diversification, growth, and soon. Recruitment has been regarded as the most important function of personnel administration. Unless t he right types of people are hired, even the best plans, organisation charts and control systems will be of no avail. A company cannot prosper; grow, or even survive without adequate human resources. Need  for trained manpower in recent years has created a pressure on some organisations to establish an efficient recruitment function. RECRUITMENT PURPOSE The general purpose of recruitment is to provide a pool of potentially qualified candidates to meet organizational need. Its specific purposes are to: Determine the present and future requirements of the organisation in conjunction with the personnel planning and job analysis activities. Increase the pool of job candidates with minimum cost. Help increase the success rate of the selection process by reducing the number of under qualified or overqualified job applicants. Help reduce the probability that job applicants, once recruited and selected, will leave the organisation only after a short period of time. Meet the organisation’s legal and social obligations regarding the composition of’ its workforce.? Start identifying and preparing potential job applicants who will be appropriate candidates.? Increase organisational and individual effectiveness in the short and long term.? Evaluate the effectiveness of various recruiting. techniques and sources for all types of job applicants.? RECRUITMENT POLICY Recruitment policy may involve a commitment to broad principles such as filling vacancies with the best qualified individuals. It may embrace several issues such as extent of promotion from within, attitudes of enterprise in recruiting its old employees, handicaps, minority groups, women employees, part-time employees, friends and relatives of present employees. It may also involve the organisation system to be developed for implementing recruitment programme and procedures. A well considered and pre-planned recruitment policy, based on corporate goals, study of environment and the corporate needs, may avoid hasty or ill-considered decisions and may go a â€Å"long way to man the organisation with the right type of personnel. A good recruitment policy must contain the following elements: Organisation’s objectives – both short term and long term.? Identification of the recruitment needs.? Preferred sources of recruitment.? Criteria of selection and preferences.? The cost of recruitment and financial implications of the same.? A recruitment policy in its broadest sense involves a commitment by the employer to (i) find the best qualified persons for each job; (ii) retain the best and most promising of those hired; (iii) offer promising opportunities for life-time working careers; and (iv) provide programmes and facilities for personal growth on the job. RECRUITMENT PROCESS To be successful, the recruitment process must follow a number of steps. These are: Defining the job? Establishing the person profile? Making the vacancy known? Receiving and documenting applications? Designing and using the application form? Selecting? Notification and final checks? Induction.? SOURCES OF MANPOWER SUPPLY Once the job analysis is completed and the job specification or behavioural competencies are identified, the next stage is to consider how to attract people who meet the requirements. A key decision is about whether to recruit internally or externally. Before an organisation actively begins recruiting applicants, it should have a knowledge of the sources of supply and methods of tapping them. The sources of supply do not remain constant but vary from time to time. The sources of supply of manpower can be divided into two groups – internal and external sources. Internal sources relate to the existing working force of an enterprise while external sources relate to the employment exchanges, colleges, institutes, and universities. The particular sources and means by which workers are recruited vary greatly. It depends upon management policy, the types of jobs involved, the supply of labour relative to demand, and labour market. In deciding which recruitment source to use, consider (a) the nature and size of the company; (b) the level of  vacancies to be filled up; (c) the number of vacancies to be filled up; (d) budget allocation; and (e) the time period to fill the vacancy. Internal Sources: Internal sources are the most obvious sources. These include personnel already on the pay-roll of an organisation, i.e., its present working force.

Symbols in the Glass Menagerie - 1307 Words

In the play, The Glass Menagerie, by Tennessee Williams, Williams uses many symbols which represent many different things.?Many of the symbols used in the play try to symbolize some form of escape or difference between reality and illusion.?The first symbol, presented in the first scene, is the fire escape.?This represents the bridge between the illusory world of the Wingfields and the world of reality.?This bridge seems to be a one way excursion.?But the direction varies for each character.?For Tom, the fire escape is the way out of the world of Amanda and Laura and an entrance into a world of new dimensions.?For Laura, the fire escape is a way into her own world. A way to escape from reality.?Amanda perceives the fire escape as a way†¦show more content†¦Dont you think I know it? Im so proud! Happy and - I feel Ive - so much to be thankful for (p. 414).?Amanda has two fears in her life.?One of her worst fears is having Tom grow up to be his father. Promise, son, youll - ne ver be a drunkard! (p. 414).?When I see you taking after his ways! Staying out late - and - well, you had been drinking the night you were in that - terrifying condition (p. 415).?Amandas other fear in life is having Laura grow old without a gentleman caller.?We have to be making plans and provisions for her. She just drifts along doing nothing. It frightens me terribly how she just drifts along (p. 416).?Tom suggested to Amanda that Laura just might be what people call home girls but Amanda refuses to believe it.?Theres no such type, and if there is, its a pity! That is unless the home is hers, with a husband (p. 416).?Therefore, Amanda sees the fire escape as a way to escape her own problems and invite gentlemen callers into their lives for Laura.? à  Ã‚ ®?Laura has issues of her own and she also finds the need to escape them. Laura leads a life of simplicity and has a difficult time dealing with the outside world.?I put her in business college - a dismal failure! Frightened her so it made her sick to her stomach. I took her over toShow MoreRelated Essay on the Use of Symbols, Tensions, and Irony in The Glass Menagerie891 Words   |  4 PagesUse of Symbols, Tensions, and Irony in The Glass Menagerie      Ã‚  Ã‚   The Glass Menagerie, by Tennessee Williams, is a perfect example of how Williams incorporates symbols, tensions, and irony to help express the central theme of the play.      Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most dominant symbols in the play is the fire escape.   It represents something different for each of the characters.   Tom uses the fire escape to escape from his cramped apartment and nagging mother.   Therefore, the fire escape symbolizesRead MoreImportant Symbols and Themes of The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams7390 Words   |  30 PagesImportant Symbols and Themes of The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams Tennessee Williams play, The Glass Menagerie is considered a memory play because it is told from the memory of the narrator. 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Three symbols seem to reveal Williams intent especially accurately; the unicorn, the picture of Mr. Wingfield, and Malvolios coffin trick.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The unicorn is a symbolic representation of waysRead More The Importance of Symbolism in The Glass Menagerie Essay1609 Words   |  7 PagesThe Importance of Symbolism in The Glass Menagerie  Ã‚      Tom Wingfield is the narrator and a major character in Tennessee William’s timeless play, The Glass Menagerie. Through the eyes of Tom, the viewer gets a glance into the life of his family in the pre-war depression era; his mother, a Southern belle desperately clinging to the past; his sister, a woman too fragile to function in society; and himself, a struggling, young poet working at a warehouse to pay the bills. Williams has managedRead More Essay on the Symbolism of the Menagerie in The Glass Menagerie1002 Words   |  5 PagesThe Symbolism of the Menagerie in The Glass Menagerie      Ã‚   Tennessee Williams play, The Glass Menagerie, describes three separate characters, their dreams, and the harsh realities they face in a modern world.   The Glass Menagerie exposes the lost dreams of a southern family and their desperate struggle to escape reality. Williams use of symbols adds depth to the play. The glass menagerie itself is a symbol Williams uses to represent the broken lives of Amanda, Laura and Tom Wingfield andRead MoreSymbolism In The Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams822 Words   |  4 Pages A play based on the power of memory, The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams is a story told from Tom Wingfield’s point of view and depicts Laura’s imaginary world, a place where she can retreat and escape the reality of the present, and live in a â€Å"perfect† world. Laura’s memories from the past shape her personality, such as the name, â€Å"Blue Roses,† which illustrates her fragile nature, much like the fragility of the glass menagerie. In order to symbolize Laura Wingfield’s fragile behavior dueRead More The Glass Menagerie Essay685 Words   |  3 PagesThe Glass Menagerie Symbolism is a major aspect in Tennessee Williams famous play, The Glass Menagerie. On the surface, the short slice of life story seems to be simple. However, if the reader digs deeper they will find that there are several symbols that give the play a deeper meaning. Each character defines each symbol in a different way. There are some very noticeable symbols that can be analyzed when studying The Glass Menagerie. The first is the actual glass menagerie that representsRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie Symbolism Essay1424 Words   |  6 PagesImagination or Illusion Can Create Big Trouble The Glass Menagerie is a five-character memory play written by Tennessee Williams in 1945. 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Conditional Probability Notation and Examples

A straightforward example of conditional probability is the probability that a card drawn from a standard deck of cards is a king. There is a total of four kings out of 52 cards, and so the probability is simply 4/52. Related to this calculation is the following question: What is the probability that we draw a king given that we have already drawn a card from the deck and it is an ace? Here we consider the contents of the deck of cards. There are still four kings, but now there are only 51 cards in the deck. The probability of drawing a king given that an ace has already been drawn is 4/51. Conditional probability is defined to be the probability of an event given that another event has occurred. If we name these events A and B, then we can talk about the probability of A given B. We could also refer to the probability of A dependent upon B. Notation The notation for conditional probability varies from textbook to textbook. In all of the notations, the indication is that the probability we are referring to is dependent upon another event. One of the most common notations for the probability of A given B is P( A | B ). Another notation that is used is PB( A ). Formula There is a formula for conditional probability that connects this to the probability of A and B: P( A | B ) P( A ∠© B ) / P( B ) Essentially what this formula is saying is that to calculate the conditional probability of the event A given the event B, we change our sample space to consist of only the set B. In doing this, we don’t consider all of the event A, but only the part of A that is also contained in B. The set that we just described can be identified in more familiar terms as the intersection of A and B. We can use algebra to express the above formula in a different way: P( A ∠© B ) P( A | B ) P( B ) Example We will revisit the example we started with in light of this information. We want to know the probability of drawing a king given that an ace has already been drawn. Thus the event A is that we draw a king. Event B is that we draw an ace. The probability that both events happen and we draw an ace and then a king corresponds to P( A ∠© B ). The value of this probability is 12/2652. The probability of event B, that we draw an ace is 4/52. Thus we use the conditional probability formula and see that the probability of drawing a king given than an ace has been drawn is (16/2652) / (4/52) 4/51. Another Example For another example, we will look at the probability experiment where we roll two dice. A question that we could ask is, â€Å"What is the probability that we have rolled a three, given that we have rolled a sum of less than six?† Here the event A is that we have rolled a three, and the event B is that we have rolled a sum less than six. There are a total of 36 ways to roll two dice. Out of these 36 ways, we can roll a sum less than six in ten ways: 1 1 21 2 31 3 41 4 52 1 32 2 42 3 53 1 43 2 54 1 5 Independent Events There are some instances in which the conditional probability of A given the event B is equal to the probability of A. In this situation, we say that the events A and B are independent of one another. The above formula becomes: P( A | B ) P( A ) P( A ∠© B ) / P( B ), and we recover the formula that for independent events the probability of both A and B is found by multiplying the probabilities of each of these events: P( A ∠© B ) P( B ) P( A ) When two events are independent, this means that one event has no effect on the other. Flipping one coin and then another is an example of independent events. One coin flip has no effect on the other. Cautions Be very careful to identify which event depends upon the other. In general P( A | B) is not equal to P( B | A). That is the probability of A given the event B is not the same as the probability of B given the event A. In an example above we saw that in rolling two dice, the probability of rolling a three, given that we have rolled a sum of less than six was 4/10. On the other hand, what is the probability of rolling a sum less than six given that we have rolled a three? The probability of rolling a three and a sum less than six is 4/36. The probability of rolling at least one three is 11/36. So the conditional probability in this case is (4/36) / (11/36) 4/11.